Allan C. Ornstein & Francis Hunkins (1993). Curriculum — Foundations, principles, and theory, 2nd ed. Allyn and Bacon, Boston. ISBN 0-205-14145-5
Phenopmenologist ideas are rooted in early field theories and field-ground ideas, which view the total organism in relationship to the environment, or what is called the field, and the learner's perception of this environment and the personal meaning in a given situation. Learning must be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem. Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli, but to an organization or pattern of stimuli.Field theories are derived from Gestalt psychology of the 1930s and 1940s. 〔完形心理學：整體大於部份之總和〕 The German word Gestalt connotes shape, form, and confituation. In this context, various stimuli are perceived in relation to others within a field. What one perceives will determine the meaning he or she gives to the field; likewise, one's solutions to other problems will depend on his or her recognition of relationships between individual stimuli and the whole.58 This is considered the field-ground relationship, and how the individual perceives this relationship determines behavior. Perception alone is not a crucial factor in learning; rather, the crucial factor is structuring and restrucuring the field relationships to form evolving patterns.
George Beauchamp has asserted that all theories are derived from three broad categories of knowledge: (1) the humanities; (2) the natural sciences; and (3) the social sciences.5 ... For example, under the humanities are the disciplines of philosophy, music, art, and literature. Under the social sciences are the disciplines of history, sociology, psychology, and anthropology, among others.Beauchamp argues that from these basic knowledge divisions come areas of applied knowledge— architecture, medicine, engineering, education, and law, to name a few. What distiguishes applied realms of knowledge from disciplines is that applied realms draw their content and indeed their authority from theory in the disciplines. Education, for example, draws from psychology, sociology, and history and uses information from biology when referring to human growth and development. It takes much of its emphasis from philosophy. What makes education a field of knowledge is the manner in which it combines knowledge from various disciplines and formulated rules and precedures for using the knowledge.
Beauchamp has identified a series of sub-theories in education: administrative theories, counseling theories, instructional theories, evaluation theories, and curriculum theories. There are two major categories of curriculum theories — design theories and engineeriong theories. Design theories address the basic organizaiton of the curriculum plan. For this, curricularists draw on philosophy as well as on social and psychology theory. Engineering theories explain, describe, predict, or even guide curriculum-development activities. They involve specific plans, principles, and/or methods or procedures. Engineering theories of curriculum are also partially based on principles of measurement and statistics. 〔教育工程：Education Engineering, EE；法國的教學工程研究法：Didactic Engineering, DE。〕
At one time these electronic networks only relayed information. Now, as Toffler reports, we are seeing the rapid development of the self-aware network. [Alvin Toffler, The Third Wave (New York: Bantam Books, 1980), p.168.] These networks have intelligence built into them. They are like the double-loop systems that Argyris talked about in management systems. (See Chapter 9.) These networks now monitor the messages; they can even decide which routing of the message will be the most efficient. As Toffler notes, it is “as though a once-dead organism ... [can] suddenly ... [check] its own blood pressure, pulse, and breathing rate.” Such self-aware networks are crisscrossing the world in increasing dentity.Learning styles should be influenced as networks interact with the students using them, as networks carry on conversations and act as critics of the information being sent. Such networks will have students of the future thinking more multidimensionally and creatively. Many students in the future will think and process information in ways that differ from and even may challenge their teachers, who might still rely on traditional thinking patterns. 〔這一段預言寫在 1983 年的第一版〕
While traditional designs have served us fairly well in the past, we realize that the future demands of schools different curricular designs and novel curriculum content. Education is more than mere accumulation of facts and mastery of skills. As Schlechty states: “In this age, ... it is not more facts that people need. Citizens need ideas, concepts, and refined sensibilities to make sense out of the facts that bombard them daily and overwhelm their instincts as well as their understanding.” [Phillip C. Schlechty, Schools for the 21st Century (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990), p.32.]
There are many educators ... who think that the knowledge-related curriculum of the future will be essentially the one we currently have. Ornstein presents a very traditional view of the curriculum of the future as comprising five basic subject areas: mathematics, science, social studies, English, and modern languages.45 These subject areas would be presented so that students not only learned the central concepts but also how to use such knowledge, how to combine the basic knowledge with problem-solving strategies and learning how-to-learn strategies.This curriculum basically brings to the future a belief that the current curriculum is soundly organized. The prime shift for the future school curriculum is seen in its delivery or in the ways in which students experience it. The ways of dealing with the content of the cirruculum comprise the new basics of the information age. People of the future must be capable of manipulating images and sounds in addition to the printed word. Students will need new forms of abstraction that will go far beyond simple book knowledge as we know it today.
我先記到這裡，該還書了。